ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTVWZ require document for identified special education students that clearly outlines the expectations and modifications for the aforementioned child. This document is created by a multitude of individuals who, are working for the childs best interest. absolute grading systems point of reference for assigning grades is based on how closely a students performance approaches an ideal performance or mastery. Academic Content Standards The knowledge and skills defined as essential for all students to know or be able to do in a specific subject or content area. Academic Discipline Oriented Curriculum A curriculum that if focused primarily on the teaching of an academic subject such as geography or economics. academic learning time the proportion of engaged time when students not only are working on an assigned task but are also experiencing success. acceleration programs a category of programs for gifted and talented students that increases the rate at which these young people go through the school program. accommodation a mental process that results in reconciliation of opposing views, or a kind of mental negotiation between the nature of new information and existing patterns of logic. accountability Holding teachers responsible for what students have learned. accuracy in measurement this concept is the agreement of the reported value to the true or accepted value, and has to do with how carefully the measurement was made. Active Voice A sentence style in which the subject performs the action. Usually preferable to passive voice unless the passive is specifically called for. Active Voice example: The lightning struck the tree. Passive Voice example: The tree was struck by lightning. Adjective A word or group of words that describe or modify a noun. Example: The slow, meandering creek sang a gentle song. adolescence this period begins with the onset of puberty and ends with acceptance of an adult identity and adult behavior patterns. advance organizer A label that describes a large and important body of content to which students should pay careful attention as they study new material. affective domain This domain includes the attitudes, feelings, and values toward school experiences. Agreement A singular noun or pronoun must take a singular verb, and a plural noun or pronoun must take a plural verb. alignment matching, coordinating or linking the goals for learning with what is taught, how it is taught, and how it is assessed? Really understanding alignment seems to be a major reason for graduate courses in curriculum & instruction. allocated time the amount of time a teacher sets aside for students to learn specific material. anecdotal record a series of written notes related to how a given student behaves over a period of time. anthropomorphism interpreting natural phenomena in terms of human characteristics. Apostrophe A punctuation mark () used to show possession. Also used in contractions, which should be avoided in formal prose. Possession example: "That was Jack's favorite coffee mug." Contraction example: "You shouldn't have dropped it." Appositive A noun or pronoun set beside another noun or pronoun to modify it. Usually accompanied by modifiers. Example: An experienced backpacker, she left no trace of where she had camped. appropriately-sequenced questions Order of questions to build students sense of confidence and give them time to think through issues. A sequence often begins with simple questions to recall uncontroversial content. More sophisticated compare-and-contrast questions follow the simple ones. Finally, capstone questions calling on students to engage their higher level thinking abilities may appropriately round up a questioning session. area studies tradition a geography tradition where the focus is on a specific area such as Texas or Australia. Art/Visual Media includes the elements of design (shape, color, balance, lines, and texture) assessment The collection, interpretation, and synthesis of information to aid in decision-making. assessment portfolios provide a format for keeping records of students work as they progress throughout the year and for allowing students to discuss their achievements and challenges with teachers, their parents and other students. assessment practices process of measuring and determining if the objective is accomplished by the learner. assessment-centered learning environment def1: focusing instructional planning on continually assessing the students thinking to determine whether she/he is gaining an understanding of the ideas being highlighted by the lesson. def2: learning environments that continually assess the students thinking and cognitive productions to determine whether he/she is gaining an understanding or (acquiring the attributes of target concepts). Key principles of assessment are that assessment practices should provide opportunities for feedback and revision and that what is assessed must be congruent with ones learning goals. assimilation a mental process that occurs when learners encounter something new, they try to "fit it in" with their existing pattern of logic. If there is a good fit, the learner achieves a state of balance between her/his logic structure and the new information. assistance (comprehension) strategy any strategy designed to assist students as they read. Examples include jot charts, pattern guides, and study skills guides. Attitude Students emotional response and opinion to the subject audience a statement identifying which learners must demonstrate a behavior; one element of four in a performance objective. authentic assessment refers to assessment tasks eliciting demonstrations of knowledge and skills in "real-world" ways. automaticity automatic responses are needed for working with a variety of mental tasks such as, multiplication tasks, sentence syntax, chemical symbols that if known without looking up or working out the solution reduces memory requirements to enable more focused attention on the real exercise at hand. backward-looking diagnosis diagnosis that focuses on knowledge, skills, and attitudes individual students have developed through prior instruction which will be necessary for success on instructional tasks associated with new lessons. basic interpersonal communication skills A term used to describe kinds of oral communications skills students need to participate comfortably in everyday conversation in informal situations. behavior a description of the skill or content element the learner must demonstrate; one element of four in a performance objective. Behavioral Psychology emphasized rote learning theory; practice = improvement behaviorism the theory based on the idea that learning occurs in a stimulus-response sequence that are established by reinforcers. Bilingual the ability to speak and understand two different languages bridging strategy attempts to bridge from students correct beliefs (called anchoring conceptions) to their misconceptions through a series of intermediate analogous situations. It is thought that students can be guided into constructing a coherent view that is applicable and consistent with their anchoring. change to make or become different in some manner (position, form, size). Channels the means by which the message is communicated chronological thinking identifying the temporal sequence in which events occurred. class profile chart A means of displaying diagnostic information for an entire class that simultaneously indicates (a) strengths and weaknesses of individual students and (b) general patterns of strength and weakness as they exist across an entire class of students. classroom rules rules that specify patterns of conduct students are to follow in a particular teachers classroom. Clause A group of words containing both a subject and a predicate. Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed. Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town... cloze procedure A diagnostic tool that tells a teacher whether an individual student, when assigned to read a given prose selection, has reading skills allowing him or her to (a) read and learn from material with little difficulty, (b) read and learn from new material provided teacher help is available, or (c) read and learn from new material with such difficulty that he or she may not profit from the experience. cognition a mental process of acquiring knowledge through perception, reasoning and/or intuition. In terms of assessing student progress, the cognition occurs when teachers consider how essential knowledge and skills are represented in their assessments in order to be compatible with their model of learning. cognitive coaching the cognitive coach provides guidance and feedback to optimize performance (especially with respect to theoretical problem descriptions). cognitive domain This domain includes the intellectual and academic aspects of formal education such as concepts, principles, facts, and theories. Cognitive Psychology Concerned with how children connect mathematics with their world in order to make sense out of both cognitive/academic language proficiency A term used to describe kinds of communications skills students need if they are to understand and participate effectively in classroom learning experiences that feature few context clues and often require their understanding of complex vocabulary terms. command economy an economic system where the decisions are made regarding the allocation of resources by a strong centralized government. communication in mathematics, the use of communication skills may be in oral or written form. As well as using ordinary language skills, it is important to understand and use the nuances of mathematics including technical language and symbols. The use of good communication skills not only allows one to let others know their thoughts about mathematical ideas, but also provides a vehicle for the tweaking of ones own ideas. Communication the sending and receiving of messages; can be face-to-face, written, or electronic Communication Process has a complex nature that involves constant interaction between the sender and receiver; has several distinct yet interconnected strands: interpersonal, group, and presentations community-centered learning environment refers to several aspects of community, including the classroom as a community, the school as a community, and the degree to which students, teachers and administrators feel connected to the larger community of homes, businesses, states, the nation and even the world. Conversations and other interactions that occur around events of interest to family members are especially powerful environments for childrens learning. Parents in classroom activities and planning hold promise of bringing about substantial learning and illustrate one aspect of a community-centered learning environment. competency tests Tests specifically measure whether or not a student has developed a satisfactory level of proficiency in a particular content area or skill. concept map a visual representation that illustrates the main concept in a unit or topic area and the connections between concepts. concepts def 1: Major ideas or terms that provide broad categories that are useful in organizing vast quantities of information. def 2: A concept is both a mental construct of the individual and the societal accepted meaning of one or more words. The following definition of a concept is in terms of the defining attributes of a formal concept. - Formal concepts are mental constructs that enable the person to verbally classify phenomena and to verbally discriminate and name the defining attributes of the target concept. Formal concepts are learned, and they may be used increasingly to generalize to new examples and to discriminate non-examples of the concept; to understand exclusive-inclusive, hierarchical, and part-whole relationships; to understand cause-effect, correlational, probability, and axiomatic relationships among constructs; and to solve problems involving the construct. The validity of an individual concept increases as the idea becomes closer to agreeing with the socially accepted meaning of the idea held by the larger social community. conceptual framework the learner organizes information into a content organization very much like the teacher establishing a content map of the key ideas related to target concepts to be taught. If instruction is successful, the learners conceptual framework should be akin to the content map the teacher began with in designing their instructional strategy to teach the concept and related ideas. Conceptual Structure require interconnecting relationships and properties that promote application and understanding conditionalized context a specification of the contexts in which the idea/information. conditions the testing conditions for the learner to demonstrate the acquired behavior; one element of four in a performance objective. Conjunction A word that joins words or phrases (i.e. and, but, or). Example: I'll pass on the pork and beans, but I'd love some pizza or ziti. connections important relationship in mathematics. These may take the form of connections among mathematical ideas, connections between mathematics and other fields, or the use of connections in mathematics to build knowledge at higher levels of mathematics. Connotation refers to a words hidden meaning or meanings constancy freedom to change. An expression that has a universally accepted fixed value. construct an idea held by an individual that may or may not be complete and correct. Incomplete mental constructs often lead to misconceptions and misunderstood principles. constructivism Theory for learning posits that learning takes place through personal interaction and manipulation of physical objects to enable the learner to "construct" ideas. This is a subcategory of a cognitive theory of learning. def1: the idea that all learning involves transfer from previous experiences. New knowledge must be constructed from existing knowledge and as a result, teachers need to pay attention to the incomplete understandings, the false beliefs and the naive renditions of concepts that learners bring with them to a given subject. def2: a cognitive learning perspective that posits that the learners previous knowledge is used to build new knowledge. content knowledge a deep understanding of the structure and epistemologies of the discipline (e.g., see AAAS -Atlas of Science for examples of science content structures). content map def1: a visual, spatial arrangement of ideas (concepts) ordered in a manner to illustrate relations among and between the ideas presented. def2: a diagram, figure or illustration to convey the relations among key ideas in a lesson, group of lessons (instructional unit) or for an entire course. content reading ability the degree to which a student can adequately comprehend and retain content or expository information Context the physical, social and emotional elements of communication contextual analysis a word-identification strategy that helps students figure out the meanings of words by how they are used in the context of sentences or passages. contextualized language use keeping language in context, such as reading and writing full texts rather than excerpts. contextual knowledge word knowledge derived from context. core literature books that should be taught in the classroom through close reading and intensive consideration. These books can serve as important stimuli for writing and discussion. continuity principle the idea that instruction has a higher probability of being effective when understandings students have gained at the conclusion of one lesson mesh well with kinds of understandings they are expected to have when instruction focusing on the following lesson begins. cost-benefit analysis a process of economic analysis that assigns a numerical value to the cost-effectiveness of industrial or public organizational procedures/operations. creative thinking an instructional activity that involves students in an inductive-learning sequence to improve their abilities to seek novel approaches to complex problems. criteria Standards (guidelines, rules, or principles) by which the responses, products, or performances of students are judged. criterion referenced test (CRT) a performance measure designed to determine a students learning status with respect to a clearly defined behavior in exhibiting content validity. CRTs are appropriate for measuring student attainment across a wide range of learning models, using different forms (such as, pretests, progress tests, or final posttests) and item types (objective test items to technical papers). CRTs are used with absolute grading systems that readily accommodates a mastery learning strategy. criterion-referenced an assessment determining the quality of a student performance by comparing it to pre-established standards for mastery/ achievement Critical Listening purpose is to gain information in order to make a decision or to understand a situation critical thinking an instructional activity that involves students in an inductive-learning sequence to improve students' abilities to evaluate ideas, or to seek novel approaches to complex problems. cultural deficit outdated view, unsupported by evidence and now rejected, that held that students from certain cultural and ethnic minorities lacked intellectual stimulation in their homes and, as a result, came to school with an underdeveloped capacity to profit from school programs. culturally and linguistically diverse learners students whose culture as well as language or dialect differ from those of the school culturally congruent instruction Instruction that builds on students cultural and linguistic strengths. culturally responsive instruction teaching that is consistent with the values of the students own culture and aimed at improving academic learning Curriculum Compacting allows students to take a pretest to demonstrate a high level of understanding of the next unit of concepts. As a replacement to the regular curriculum, the teacher then provides enrichment materials to academically challange the students. Curriculum Wars The debate that is taking place across the nation by individuals with different philosophies concerning what should be taught in the public schools. daily lesson plan A planning framework for the teacher that includes the following information for a particular lesson: date, period, subject, topic(s) under consideration, expected instructional outcome, listing of instructional activities (often activities are elaborated upon), resources needed for lesson and assignment for next class meeting. data factual information (observations or statistics) used as a basis reasoning, discussions and/or calculations. data retrieval chart an instructional tool to aid students to compare, contrast, and generalize ideas by organizing ideas into a 2 dimensional (x rows by y columns) matrix. Decoding the process in which the receiver tries to interpret the exact meaning of the message decontextualized language use the basis for literacy, requiring developing language awareness deductive logic A pattern of logical thinking that begins with a general explanation or principle that is then illuminated and made clear by reference to examples that are consistent with the general explanation or principle. definitional knowledge word knowledge based upon a definition from a dictionary or glossary degree an indication of what level of performance is necessary for the instructional outcome to be achieved; one element of four in a performance objective. Deliberative Listening involves detecting a problem Denotation refers to the specific definition of words Dependent (Subordinate) Clause A clause that can not stand alone as a sentence and must be combined with an independent clause. Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed. Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town... Independent Clause -- A clause that can stand alone as a sentence. Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed. Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town... determinism interpreting natural phenomena in terms of the postulate, if we know the positions and velocities of all the particles of the universe at any one time, the laws of physics should allow us to predict what the state of the universe would be at any other time, past or future. developmentalism a perspective of human maturation that posits for cognitive and attitudinal maturity to occur, individuals need to confront specific kinds of tasks successfully and, sometimes, to pass through them in a prescribed sequence. diagnosis when used in education, diagnosis can be made from actions teachers take to ascertain the present levels of student understanding for the purpose of determining their readiness for new instruction, and for determining the appropriateness of new lessons, given their previous learning. dialects the ways people speak in different parts of the country or in specific cultures digression Information from the teacher that wanders far afield from the focus of a lesson. discrepant event a key element of an inductive instructional activity that presents learners with a puzzling or perplexing situation. It is something that does not square with students'present understandings of reality. dual-language reading approach reading approach that provides reading instruction in the primary language of the students as well as in standard English; emergent literacy childrens reading and writing behaviors that occur before and develop into conventional literacy early adolescence includes young people in the 10-13 year-old age group. earth studies tradition a geographic tradition where the focus is on the physical systems of the earth. It is closely related to geology. Education for All Handicapped Children Act this legislation (Public Law 94-142), passed in 1975, established federal requirements for schools to provide educational services in schools in the least restrictive environment. educational record an education record that includes information about a student, for example report cards, test scores, surveys completed by students, health records, special education records, and information about parents/guardians. Electronic Media encompass a variety of areas, including film and video (i.e., camera angles, camera shots, lighting, sound, special effects), television (i.e., commercials, news, shows), and music (i.e., lyrics, instrumentation) Empathic Listening when one shows concern as she/he listens empirical originating in or based on observation or experience; relying on experience or observation alone often without due regard for system and theory; capable of being verified or disproved by observation or experiment (Merriam Webster Online Dictionary). Encoding the process of putting a message into the form in which it is to be communicated engaged time the proportion of allocated time when students are actually engaged in studying the assigned material. engineering the practical application of scientific and mathematical principles in formulating solutions to real life problems and systems. English as a second language (ESL) students whose first language is not English enrichment programs Term applied to programs for gifted and talented programs that keep these students in regular classrooms but provide them with learning experiences that are more challenging than those provided to other class members. Enunciation pronunciation and articulation equilibration a mental process espoused by Piaget that learners achieve a state of congruence between new information they are receiving and their existing patterns of logic. Over time, tensions between novel situations and existing patterns move young people to more advanced cognitive states. equilibrium state of balance between opposing forces or actions that is either static (e.g., book on bookshelf) or dynamic (e.g., gas and liquid states of water in sealed container). estimation a judgment, considered or casual, that precedes or takes the place of actual measuring or counting or testing out (Merriam Webster Online Dictionary). ethical traditions of scientists moral principles or values guiding the behavior of scientists. A partial listing of these principles include: peer review of research work, independent studies for confirmation of results, informed consent of human subjects for research participation, and attention to conflicts of interest. ethics the basic principles of right action, especially with reference to a particular person or profession. ethnocentrism a concept in anthropology where a culture believes that their way of viewing the world is the most logical and natural. evaluation judgment regarding the quality, value or worth of assessment results; the final judgment of student performance. evidence refers to data gathered from observations, experiments, and models to explain a natural phenomena. evolution a sequence of changes that may be slow or fast, small or dramatic, that results in the current form and function of objects, organisms, and systems. Evolution is usually thought of as a biological process, relating to organisms, but it can also refer to the environment, the physical sphere, natural or designed systems, or even the universe. exceptionalities Characteristics of students whose talents, behaviors, or physical conditions deviate sufficiently from general patterns to warrant additional or special kinds of services from the schools. experiential and conceptual backgrounds readers experiences that are both concrete and abstract (knowledge), as well as their reasoning abilities in using this knowledge. This is also known as background knowledge expert individuals who: 1. Notice features and meaningful patterns; 2. Have acquired much information that has been organized for deep understanding; 3. Have knowledge conditionalized for applicability; 4. Retrieve information with little attentional effort; 5. May not be able to teach what they know to others; 6. Have varying levels of flexibility in their approach to new situations. expert teachers They are learner centered in the sense that teachers build on the knowledge students bring to the learning situation. knowledge centered because teachers help students develop and organized understanding of important concepts in their disciplines. assessment centered in that teachers attempt to make students thinking visible so that the ideas can be discussed and clarified, such as having students present their arguments in debates, discuss their solutions to problems in a qualitative manner, and make predictions about various phenomena. They are community centered in the sense that teachers establish classroom norms where understanding is valued and students are willing to explore what they do not understand. explanation act or process of making an idea understandable. Explicit Instruction involves teacher modeling and scaffolding to guide students as they learn new strategies and skills; critical to the success of students in reading, especially those who are struggling readers explicit/direct instruction instruction systematic teaching in which the teacher models and demonstrates learning and gradually turns the responsibility for learning over to the student; this teaching method emphasizes students understanding of the when and why of utilizing various capabilities and strategies Expository (Informational) Texts use facts and details to inform the reader about a topic and often contain unfamiliar content and vocabulary; introduce readers to complex ideas by using a variety and combination of text structures, such as description, comparison and contrast, causation, and problem-solution expository text the text structure found in content books, including (1) description, (2) collection, (3) causation, (4) problem-solution, and (5) comparison. extended literature works that teachers may assign to individuals or small groups as homework or supplemental class work external locus of control A pattern of attributing events to factors outside of one's personal control. facts Isolated pieces of information, having little transfer value, that refer to a specific circumstance or situation. Facts pieces of knowledge - items which are known and remembered Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 federal legislation that lays out strict guidelines related to parent and student access to educational records and to distribution of information related to these records to others. Feedback provided to the sender from the receiver once the messages has been received to communicate the recipients reaction feedback instructional event of providing information to the learner on the quality (accuracy, precision, degree of completeness, level of expression). Feedback is most valuable when students have the opportunity to use it to revise their thinking as they are working on an intellectual task. FERPA Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 form the shape and structure of something as distinguished from its material (composition). formative assessment assessment that targets whether instructional adjustments are needed if learners are not making progress in accomplishing their intellectual goals during the instructional program. formative evaluation assessment processes that track individual and group performances during implementation of the instructional plan to determine whether the plan is working as planned. formative test a criterion referenced performance measure used to determine students progress in attaining the targeted outcome (performance objective) while instruction is in progress. forward-looking diagnosis diagnosis that seeks to determine whether a few students already have mastered content that a teacher intends to teach in a new lesson. Frame of Reference a persons attitude and past experience that influences the communication process function the expected action or operation of a person or thing. functions of written language to inform, entertain, and direct. gifted students students identified to have high-performance abilities and capabilities based on mental age and creativity generalizations 1) Statements of relationship among concepts that summarize what the best-available information suggests is true or correct. 2) A broad statement that defines the relationship between two or more concepts. Because they summarize a broad range of content and are relatively stable they are also called enduring understandings. genetic deficit Outdated view, unsupported by evidence and now rejected, which held that students from certain cultural and ethnic minorities lack the mental capacity to profit from challenging academic programs. global education Teaching students about individuals and cultures around the world. Grade telescoping enables high-ability students to progress through middle school and high school in fewer years than the regular program grand conversations a group leader encourages students to join in a discussion of the text; the leader records topics and issues discussed and looks for any patterns that appear in recorded responses. It is an opportunity for all to contribute, while the teacher asks for clarification, elaboration, and explanation; the leaders role is to facilitate and encourage comments to a higher level of thinking grapheme-phoneme relationships the relationships between written letters and letter combinations and the sounds they represent Graphic Organizers a pictorial way of organizing information Group Communication three to seven people in face-to-face interaction working toward a common goal Hearing the physical process of perceiving sound historic era a specific time period in history. historical thinking an element of the National History Standards focused on historical analysis and interpretations as well as identifying central questions and taking into account the historical context. historical understanding the element of the national standards focusing on the content of history that students should know and understand. human-support-services professionals term referring to professionals such as education, medicine, social work, and law enforcement whose work seeks to assist people to lead well-adjusted, productive and meaningful personal lives. hypothesis tentative explanation of order and relation in nature that may be tested with experimentation. Hypothesis implies insufficient evidence to provide more than a tentative explanation from scientific data. IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act IEP Individualized Education Plan inclusion students with special needs are assigned to regular classrooms for the whole day and are allowed to participate in all school activities inclusion principle A requirement imposed by federal legislation that requires schools to recognize not only their legal obligations to serve students with disabilities, but also to welcome students with disabilities as valued and wanted members of the regular classroom community. Independent Clause A clause that can stand alone as a sentence. Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed. Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town... Individualized Education Plan required document for identified special education students that clearly outlines the expectations and modifications for the aforementioned child. This document is created by a multitude of individuals who, are working for the childs best interest. individualized education plan (IEP) A requirement imposed by federal legislation relating to the education of students with disabilities that requires schools, working with parents and other professionals, to develop a unique learning plan for each identified student with a disability. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Name applied to modified version of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. This federal legislation, which is regularly updated, provides guidelines for schools regarding programming for students with disabilities. inductive logic A pattern of logical thinking that begins with a consideration of examples and leads to an understanding of a larger, explanatory conclusion. inferential questions questions that combine background knowledge and text information to make predictions about story content Informal Language includes slang or colloquial words Information Technology includes searching databases and conducting research information-processing model of learning explains the complex role of memory in learning by using an analogy of a computer. This model explains learning by inputs from the environment with perception, encoding, memory, motivation, and goal orientation resulting in a performance by the learner. The theory based on the premise that learning connects upon schemata and builds upon itself. Informed Social Criticism An approach to citizenship education that focuses on helping students critique present and past actions of the nation. instructional outcome statement of instructional intent that orients the instructional planning process. instructional strategy plan that includes instructional activities to enable the learner to accomplish the objective. Instructional Technology includes developing multimedia presentations and managing graphics, video, sound, and text integrative discipline a subject or discipline that can include content from several other subjects. interactive theory of reading the theory that readers use information from the text, their experiential and conceptual backgrounds, and the context in which reading occurs to arrive at meaning interest inventory a diagnostic tool that can provide information about students relative levels of like or dislike about individual subjects or about topics covered within a given course or subject. Interference external or internal factors that prevent communication internal summary A stopping point the teacher makes as a lesson develops that allows for a recapitulation of what has happened up to that time. internalization a process children go through as they take on and develop personal characteristics, values, and patterns of thought of their society. Vygotsky used the term in describing how cognitive development of the child relies heavily on ideas that develop because of influences of the social context. Interpersonal Communication communication between two or more people interpretation the process of explaining a phenomenon. In terms of assessing student progress, interpretation takes into account how observations collected from a set of assessment tools constitute evidence that learning has occurred. Introductory Phrase A group of words that cannot stand alone found at the beginning of a sentence. Example: Hoping to improve his writing, he never went to sleep before jotting down a page of random thoughts. Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Act of 1994 Federal legislation, Public Law 100-297, that provides funds to schools to prepare teachers to meet special needs of gifted and talented students and to support activities of a National Center for the Education of the Gifted. journal a notebook or binder of reflections of a student on learning experiences in the classroom. It may contain reactions to questions, problem solving and questions/ responses to the process, self-assessments. knowledge-centered learning environment focusing instructional planning on well-organized knowledge framework that help students become knowledgeable by learning in ways that lead to understanding and subsequent transfer. Language an important component of communication; spoken or written words that convey a message, which may be overt or covert late adolescence includes young people in the 17-19 year-old age group. law implies a statement of order and relation in nature that has been found to be invariable under the same conditions. learner centered environment learning environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting. John Dewey championed this idea nearly a century ago and it takes into account records of previous accomplishments of the learner (taking into account what the learner brings to the learning task) and engagement in active processes or learn by doing. learner-centered learning environment focusing instructional planning on the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting. learning a complex cognitive activity of information integration that requires considerable time. learning contracts A mode of packaging instruction, often used with gifted and talented students, which provides students with a clear set of instructions they follow as they perform required tasks with little direct teacher supervision. learning transfer the amount of (learning) transfer will be a function of the overlap between the original domain of learning and the novel one. Transfer between tasks is a function of the degree to which the tasks share cognitive elements, Yet helping students generalize their understanding into a map or schema helps the student to think more abstractly about the idea (concept or perhaps a principle) in other situations. least restrictive environment A requirement imposed by federal legislation relating to the education of students with disabilities that requires schools to education students in environments that minimize the time they spend outside of regular classrooms. As a result of this requirement, many students with disabilities now spend part or all of the school day as members of regular classrooms. LEP Limited-English-Proficient(LEP), term used to describe students who learned another language before learning English and whose abilities in English may not be sufficient for them to derive maximum benefits from school programs. limited-English proficiency (LEP) students students who lack sufficient English language skills to achieve in a regular classroom setting. These students need special linguistic instruction in order to have the opportunity to achieve in the regular classroom setting limited-English-proficient (LEP) Term used to describe students who learned another language before learning English and whose abilities in English may not be sufficient for them to derive maximum benefits from school programs. Linguists people who study language and its variations. Listening both the physical and cognitive processes of hearing something with thoughtful attention and consideration literacy the ability to read and write proficiently literal questions questions based on information explicitly stated in the text macroeconomics the study of how societies and governments establish and manage economic decisions. macropolitics the study of the overall operation of a political system. malfeasance doing what should not have been done, or committing an unlawful act. man-land tradition a geographic tradition that studies the relationship between humans and cultures and the physical environment. marker expression A expression such as pay attention to this that a teacher makes to draw special attention to particular information. market economies economic systems that make resource allocations based on the actions of the market. master prescriptions list an inventory of alternative suggestions that a teacher may include in a prescription designed to help an individual student develop knowledge and skills needed for him or her to succeed when new content is introduced. mastery learning strategy idea that every student in class can learn and accomplish the instructional objectives if the instructional strategy takes into account their prior learning, sufficient guidance is provided to aid students understanding, and appropriate time is provided for the criterion performance to occur across the students in class. mathematical assessment "the process of gathering evidence about students knowledge of, ability to use, and disposition toward, mathematics and of making inferences from that evidence for a variety of purposes." (NCTM, 1995, p.3) mathematical reasoning a well thought out sequence of steps used in mathematics to establish relationships. The steps may include such items as previously learned concepts and skills, connections, strategies for problem solving, and good communication skills. meaning vocabulary words whose meanings and concepts are represented by words already understood measurement act or process of determining the amount, dimensions, capcity, time and interval of observed phenomena. mechanicomorphism interpreting natural phenomena in terms of mechanical models that included a necessary causal connection between one natural phenomena and another. Media Literacy the informed, critical understanding of media, including news, entertainment, and advertising; also involves the ability to analyze and deconstruct media messages mediated instruction intervention or guidance that another person (such as a peer, parent, or teacher) provides in the teaching-learning process mental scaffolding a process to enable spectators to become learning participants. This process includes: 1. Making the task interesting to the learner; 2. Reducing the steps to solution by simplifying the task 3. Maintaining goal in mind, through motivation of the learner and direction of the activity 4. Marking critical features of discrepancies between what the learner has produced and the ideal solution 5. Controlling frustration and risk in problem solving, and 6. Demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed. Message any idea the sender wants the receiver to understand Metacognition an awareness of ones own mental functions (such as remembering, focusing attention, and processing information); strategically thinking about what ones self is doing to plan before a task, maintaining awareness and monitoring continuously during a task, and summarizing and critically evaluating a task after completion metacognition def 1: Mental activity associated with bringing to a conscious level those processes a person uses as he or she thinks about and works through problems. def 2: individuals abilities to predict their performance on various tasks and to monitor their current levels of mastery and understanding or, stated with other terms, metacognition is sense-making, self-assessment, and reflection on what works and what needs improvement. metacognitive process a process an individual can use to self check for understanding. microeconomics the study of how individuals go about making economic choices. micropolitics the study of the attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making of individuals. middle adolescence includes young people in the 14-16 year-old age group. misconceptions content misunderstandings, faulty beliefs and inaccurate information that learners bring to a lesson. These misconceptions are often difficult to correct and remain with the person throughout life unless corrected. Learner held ideas developed by limited experiences resulting in incomplete ideas or half-truths. model representations of objects, relationships, or phenomena, but they are not the same as the thing they represent. Models are useful because they share some of the characteristics of what they represent, but they are limited in that they do not share all the characteristics of what they represent. model-based reasoning a problem-solving approach that entails inventing or selecting a model, exploring the qualities of the model, and then applying the model to answer a question of interest. modeling demonstration of strategies and behaviors to enhance their conceptualization. opportunity to learn allotment of time and exposure to instruction motivation a mental process that compels the person to attend or focus on cognitive tasks. Influences on motivation are: competence, achievement, performance oriented, learning oriented, social opportunities, and usefulness to community. multi-group lessons Term used to describe a category of lessons designed to enhance students appreciation for the benefits of diversity that focuses on a single issue and introduces students to perspectives of multiple groups regarding the focus issue. multidisciplinary approaches Curriculum approaches that include concepts and perspectives of several disciplines when studying a given topic. multiple-issue question A question that embeds several issues or questions within a single question and, hence, often confuses students. Narrative Texts tell a story; most texts that are read for pleasure National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) The largest organization that represents the needs of social studies teachers. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics the worlds largest mathematics education organization, founded in 1920 National Defense Education Act (NDEA) An act that was passed following the launching of Sputnik. It was intended to infuse the curriculum with more academic rigor. It brought the social science disciplines into the social studies curriculum. naturally-occurring conference a category of teacher-parent/guardian conference that occurs as a natural part of a school event such as an open house. needed-information matrix a matrix that includes (a) lists of basic knowledge, skills, and attitudes students will need as they confront new learning and (b) lists of diagnostic-data-gathering approaches that will provide information about present levels of students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes. negligence conduct that falls below a standard of care established by law or profession to protect others against an unreasonable risk or harm. New Math failed mathematic reform of the early 1960 that was designed by mathematicians and was difficult to implement because of the lack of teacher training nonfeasance failure to do what should have been done. Nonrestrictive Phrase A subordinate clause that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence but adds a relevant detail. Nonrestrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician, who gave me a smile back. Restrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician who played the sweetest song. Nonverbal Messages messages that are not written or spoken; can either reinforce or contradict verbal messages norm referenced test (NRT) a performance measure designed to measure student performance in terms of how the student performs compared to other students in class. NRTs are based on a measurement model, not a model of learning, with the underlying assumption that the distribution of academic talent in a class is the same as the normal distribution of academic ability among the general population of students. NRTs take the form of posttests and are used with relative grading systems. Noun A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Example: A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. observation act of noting and recording a phenomenon through the use of the senses. In terms of assessing student progress, observation focuses on constructing assessments that will prompt students to demonstrate learning progress. on - call system a system that designates a specific staff member, often a counselor or administrator, who will come quickly to the assistance of any teacher who is experiencing a serious student behavior problem. Open classroom student-centered classrooms that called for considerable structure and follow-through by the teacher informed by the interests of the child opportunity to learn a concept referring to the idea that students cannot acquire information they have not been exposed to by their teachers. A strong correlation exists between increases in opportunities to learn and student achievement. oral language the language abilities of speaking and listening order phenomena marked by regularity; the behavior of units of matter, objects, organisms, or events that can be described statistically. organization a functional structure that arranges components into a coherent whole. Types and levels of organization include the periodic table and the classification of organisms. orthography the writing system of a language paradigm current model (example or approach) that the scientific community holds for a particular phenomenon under consideration. Paralanguage quality of voice; conveys a message during the communication process paralanguage Influences on verbal meaning, for example gestures, that shape what is conveyed by words but are not the words themselves. Parallel Construction A sentence construction where equal parts are expressed using similar grammatical forms. Each part of speech in each idea has a counterpart in the next idea. parent/guardian communication plan a plan prepared by a teacher that describes action alternatives related to communicating with parents/guardians about how their sons and daughters cope with school-related challenges. participatory skills those skills identified by the National Civics standards required for competent participation in the political process. Participial Phrase A phrase containing a participle and any modifiers. Participle A verb form used as an adjective. Passive Voice a sentence style in which the action is performed on the subject. Usually inferior to the active voice unless specifically called for. Active Voice example: The lightning struck the tree. Passive Voice example: The tree was struck by lightning. pedagogical content knowledge def1: information about typical difficulties encountered as the student attempts to learn a topic; typical paths a student must cover in order to achieve understanding, and potential strategies for helping students overcome difficulties they are having in understanding the idea. def2: information held by teachers for identifying and correcting learner misconceptions as well as teaching information in an effective manner. pedagogical knowledge knowledge of the kinds of teaching activities that will help students come to understand the discipline for themselves (e.g., learning theory, child and adolescent development, motivation theory, methods of teaching, principles of instructional design, management theory, sociological principles of group behavior). peer review this process of having colleagues review each others published work, (reporting of their methods, findings, and results) is a highly valued norm among scientists. performance criteria guidelines, rules or principles just to judge student responses, products, or performances; a description of what to look for in student work/ performances to judge quality (Arter & McTighe, 2001). performance objective an instructional outcome that includes the four elements: audience, behavior, conditions and degree. performance tasks a task requiring students to construct a response, create a product, or perform a demostration. In mathematics, this could be modeling a problem with manipulatives, creating a game, solving an open-ended problem. performance-linked feedback Feedback characterized both by a teacher judgment and a reminder of the precise student behavior that resulted in the judgment. phenomena any factor or variable that might be investigated. phonemic awareness understanding that spoken words are represented by units of sounds or can be separated into speech sounds phonics the teaching of reading in a manner that stresses symbol-sound relationships Pitch sound of the voice point of view the viewpoint that authors choose when they tell a story, including the details they describe and the judgements they make polysemous words words having different meanings (such as air in air ball and to air ones views) portfolio a purposeful collection of student work showing progress over time. This can include work such as tests, projects, journals, homework, and student self-assessments. positive ambience as applied to a classroom, a general set of conditions that gives the space and atmosphere that students find warm, interesting, and supportive. Such conditions have been found to characterize many classrooms where students tend to be motivated and highly involved in their lessons. positivism interpreting natural phenomena using mathematical models that describes and codifies observations resulting in definite predictions that can be tested. (Hawking, 2001) possibility statement Statements that include words and statements such as chances are, could be, and maybe that imply a statement has a shaky anchoring in truth. precision in measurement this concept is a function of the instrument used to measure a phenomenon that represents the least variation from a standard when the instrument is correctly used. Predicate The part of a sentence that tells what the subject does or has done to it. Example: I always forget the difference between a verb and a predicate. prereading strategy any strategy designed to prepare students to read new material. Examples include KWLs, Anticipation Guides, Graphic Organizers. principle an explanation that links or conveys the relation of two or more concepts. Depending on the degree of supporting evidence, these explanations may range from being a hypothesis, a theory or a law. principles a statement that conveys a relation or action between two or more concepts. In a content discipline, a principle represents key idea in the field of study. Print Media includes newspapers, magazines, charts, and figures probability statement A teacher statement prefaced by terms such as frequently, generally, and often that lacks precision and sometimes confuses students who fail to understand whether they are receiving valid or invalid information. problem a proposed dilemma that requires a non-routine plan for solution. Routine calculation type exercises are not problems. problem solving an instructional activity that involves students in an inductive-learning sequence that leads the students to identify an appropriate solution. professional development Activities that are planned for teachers to assist them in their development of teaching competencies. professional development and appraisal system (PDAS) a system used to assess teachers in Texas in each year of their professional practice. professional growth opportunity any additional education, training, or development modality that acts to extend, broaden, or improve the capacity of an educator to perfom a particular role. Pronoun A word used as a substitute for a noun (known as the antecedent). Example: The pronoun is a lonely word; it must always be paired with an antecedent. proof a logical argument which establishes the truth of a statement. proximity control the influence on a students behavior that is caused by the teacher being situated at a place in the classroom that is near the students desk. Teachers often use this idea to stifle potential undesirable behaviors by walking toward the desk of a misbehaving student. psychomotor domain This domain includes development of motor control and movement (e.g; musical and athletic performances, or writing in cursive, or oral reading of a selection) to name a few psychomotor skills. Public Law 100-297 this federal legislation, which is regularly updated, provides guidelines for schools regarding programming for students with disabilities. Public Law 101-476 a modified version of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which provides funds to schools to prepare teachers to meet special needs of gifted and talented students and to support activities of a National Center for the Education of the Gifted. Public Law 94-142 This legislation, known was the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, passed in 1975 and established federal requirements for schools to provide educational services in the least restrictive environment. It was later renamed the "Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. quasi contract a consensus regarding what it is logical to expect from someone who has voluntarily prepared for a profession and who has accepted benefits accorded to members of the chosen profession. Rate pace at which words are spoken readability the match between reader and text material. One way of determining readability is by using a readability formula designed to identify the difficulty of text material. reading the active process of constructing meaning from written text in relation to the experiences and knowledge of the reader reading framework an instructional process that prepares the reader before reading, assists him/her during reading, and encourages reflection after reading. Receiver the person who interprets the message; decode messages reciprocal teaching instructional practice with strategies that enable students to monitor their level of understanding, including the provision of an expert modeling metacognitive processes, and a social setting that enables joint negotiation for understanding. reflection strategy any strategy designed to encourage reflection after students have read text material. Examples include post-graphic organizers, discussion webs, and any writing activity such as RAFT. Reflective Thinking and Problem Solving A major thrust of the social studies that is designed to help students reflect on social issues and enduring problems and move toward problem solving. region a geographic concept that related to an area of any size or shape that has a measure of cohesiveness. relative having meaning or existence dependent on another condition, object, or event. relative grading system point of reference for assigning grades is based on how well a student performs compares with the performances of her/his peers. reliability degree to which assessment results are dependable and consistent across raters, over time, or across different versions of the same test. Statistically, this refers to the degree to which errors of measurement are absent from an assessment instrument (Arte & McTighe, 2001). Restrictive Phrase A subordinate clause that is essential in specifying something about the thing it modifies. Nonrestrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician, who gave me a smile back. Restrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician who played the sweetest song. risk factors Conditions or circumstances which, when characterizing individual students, have been found to have negative influences on their school performance. rubrics guidelines designed to tell an assessor what he or she should look at in making judgments about the quality of performance of the individual being judged. A scoring guide in a particular format used to evaluate student work/ performance. Categories are listed with descriptions illustrating the criteria for various levels of achievement/ performance. scaffolds forms of support provided by the teacher (or another student) to help students bridge the gap between current abilities and the intended goal schemas an intellectual tool for organizing bodies of knowledge/ understanding organized around overarching principles. schemata the meaningful organization of knowledge based on ones experiences; we have schemata for places, events, and roles science Processes that are both intellectual and social, that apply human intelligence to interpreting natural phenomena or figuring out how the world works (AAAS, 1993). scientific enterprise As an endeavor for learning how the world works, science provides a living for a very large number of people. It is important to understand how science is organized because in a democracy, citizens influence what public support will be provided for basic and applied science. Other aspects of the scientific enterprise include its social structure, its discipline and institutional identification, its ethics, and the role of scientists in public affairs. scientific inquiry science depends on experimental and observational confirmation. In scientific research, the testing, revising, and occasional discarding of theories, new and old, never ends. This iterative process leads to an increasingly better understanding of how the world works but not to absolute truth. Scientific Method an inductive instructional process described by philosopher John Dewey in his classic 1910 text, How We Think. The process follows this general sequence: (1) Identify a focus and describe essential dimensions of a problem or situation. (2) Suggest possible solutions to the problem or explanations of the problem or situation. (3) Gather evidence related to these solutions or explanations. (4) Evaluate possible solutions or explanations of the problem in light of evidence. (5) Develop a conclusion that is best supported by evidence. semantic clues a contextual-analysis strategy using the meanings of known words in a sentence or passage to identify an unknown word semantics the meaning features of language Semicolon a punctuation mark (;) used to separate independent clauses or items in a series. Sender the person who has the message to communicate; encode messages Sentence Modifier A word or phrase that is not the subject or predicate but adds to the meaning of the sentence. sheltered instruction Instruction that seeks to make teaching more comprehensible to students by (a) using simplified vocabulary, (b) incorporating extensive use of non-verbal cues, (c) providing students with multiple examples of how new content relates to their lives, and (d) involving students in numerous opportunities to use new skills as they interact with others. sight vocabulary words that a reader knows and comprehends instantly significant digits the digits that are certain and one more from a measurement or (smallest scale on the instrument + one additional decimal place that was estimated). single-group lessons Term used to describe a category of lessons designed to enhance all students appreciation for the benefits of diversity that focuses on intensive study of the perspectives, priorities, and values of one group. skill learning that is specific in nature and amenable to behavioral objectives skills customary, well-established procedures, which are used in more or less the same configuration again and again social cognitive theory theory for learning that posits that learning occurs through modeling what an actor does resulting in changes of mental associations and is explained through cognitive processes. Social Science Disciplines Those specific subjects that have as a primary focus the study of human beings. They generally include geography, economics, sociology, anthropology, political science, and social psychology. History is sometimes included except that some historians look at their subject as more humanities than science. Social Studies That aspect of the school curriculum devoted to the study of humans and the human condition. socially constructed learning activities robust knowledge and understandings are socially constructed through talk, activity, and interaction around meaningful problems and tools. Socially Efficient Individuals An early goal of the social studies. The intent was to develop students who were committed to fundamental American values and who could make contributions to the technical and social development of the nation. spatial tradition a major geographic tradition that studies the location, distribution, and interaction of phenomena across space. specific-problem-solving conference a category of teacher-parent/guardian conference in which the teacher and a set of parents/guardians meet specifically for the purpose of discussing problems or issues concerning these parents'/guardian's child. spillage the act of spilling something. Standard (Formal) Language acceptable in most situations standardized testing Tests that are developed by agencies external to the teacher and that are used to test students under clearly specified conditions. They are normed and used to test large groups of students in order to compare how well each student is performing when compared to the norm. standards NCTM designed statements of criteria for excellence in school matematics programs Standards-based Education Education that is focused on teaching understandings and competencies that are defined as essential for all students. strategy A plan of action structural analysis a word-identification strategy that focuses on visual or structural patterns and meanings that change as a result of adding inflectional endings, prefixes, and suffixes and combining root words structure of knowledge Scheme for breaking down knowledge that features three basic content types: (1) facts, (2) concepts, and (3) generalizations. study skills a general term for those techniques and strategies that help a person read or listen for specific purposes with the intent to remember; commonly, following directions, locating, selecting, organizing, and retaining information, interpreting typographic and graphic aids, and reading flexibility style an authors choice and arrangement of words to create plot, characterizations, and setting together in a meaningful whole Subject The thing in the sentence that is being discussed. Usually a noun or a noun phrase. Summarizing a complex skill that helps students focus on the most important ideas in a text summative assessment assessment that is used to grade the final performance of learners regarding their intellectual skill performance at the end of an instructional program. summative evaluation data from Criterion Referenced Tests whether formative or summative processes (final posttest, or laboratory reports, or technical papers) provide valuable information for assessing program effects. For instructional programs that are being implemented for the first time, if 70% of the students in class satisfy a performance objective, the related instructional program is operating sufficiently well to retain it for future classes, although refinement of the instructional program is needed. summative test a criterion referenced performance measure used after several instructional units have occurred. Results from this performance assessment can be used for assigning grades for the grading period (six week, semester, end of course). syllabication the division of a word into its basic units of pronunciation syntactic clues a contextual-analysis strategy using the knowledge of word order in a language to identify an unknown word syntax the word order or grammar of a language synthetic phonics a phonic approach beginning with instruction on individual sounds system a regularly interacting or interdependent group of components forming a unified whole. Systems have capabilities and characteristics that you cannot find in any single part of that system that results from the system working as a whole. Also, systems have boundaries, resources flow (inputs and outputs), and feedback processes. taxonomy a content map that organizes items/ideas in terms of whether the item/idea is/ is not a member of the category (classification). teacher modeling Actions a teacher takes to illustrate for students a process or procedure they will need to follow to successfully complete an assigned task. teacher modeling process A process that involves the teacher in a verbal walk-through of processes and procedures students need to follow as the work to complete an assigned task. teacher-student conference a formal or informal meeting between a teacher and a single student. teaching portfolio a compilation of information that documents a teacher's accomplishment during a particular period of time that covers all instructional and environmental situations relevant to this person's assignment. Technical Language includes jargon that is associated with a specific trade or profession technology the process of applying knowledge, tools, and skills to solve practical problems and extend human capabilities. It is enhanced by the discoveries of science and shaped by the designs of engineering (Johnson, 1989). test set of questions or situations designed to allow an inference about what student knows or can do in a certain area. It is a formal, systematic procedure to find evidence of student understanding and achievement test-absence of bias test items are screened for gender and cultural stereotype inferences. test-clarity of language test items are grammatically correct and precise terms are used to prevent ambiguity. test-content validity whether the test measures what it purports to measure. This relation is evidenced by a direct relation between the stated objective and the test developed to measure attainment of the objective. test-item difficulty test item property that indicates how often a particular item is answered correctly. An item difficulty of 90% indicates that 9 of 10 students completing this item answered it correctly (an easy test item). test-reliability property of test that indicates the consistency of student performances when reassessed with the test on different occasions. texas assessment of knowledge and skills (TAKS) a testing prgram tied to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills program. texas beginning educator support system (TxBESS) a system used in Texas to evaluate and support teachers during their first two years of employment. texas essential knowledge and skills (TEKS) the mandated curriculum for schools in Texas. text any material that one reads. It could be a textbook, a magazine article, a web resource, a newspaper article, etc. thematic units integrating content (e.g., of science, math, and social studies) and using literacy to facilitate childrens learning of important concepts and ideas theme a topic of discourse. The National Science Education Standards identifies the following five themes that are important across all science disciplines: 1. Systems, order, and organization; 2. Evidence, models, and explanation; 3. Constancy, change, and measurement; 4. Evolution and equilibrium; 5. Form and function. 6. The central idea that ties the plot, characterizations, and setting together in a meaningful whole. theory an explanation of order and relation in nature that implies a greater range of evidence than available for a hypothesis, but less compelling than is necessary to be considered a law. Tone mood reflected by the speaker Tracks (tracking) groups individuals based on academic abilities trackstar an on-line interface that helps instructors organize and annotate web sites (URLs) into lessons. The list of sites (web resources) acts like a table of contents and remains visible throughout the lesson allowing the user/student to easily browse through the lesson and stay on Track. trade book any general use book one might purchase at a bookstore or borrow from the library. They are used to supplement textbooks that are bought as the primary resource for teaching a particular class. They may be fiction or nonfiction. traditional economies economic systems where the allocation of resources is made by tradition. Transmission of Cultural Heritage An approach to citizenship education that focuses on the inculcation of certain shared values and a common core of knowledge that is taught to all students. TxBESS activity profile (TAP) a collection of information drived from ratings on the TxBESS system that give each teacher a data base to which they can refer as they seek out professional development activities that will help them improve their teaching performance. vague approximation Teacher statements that include words or phrases such as about, sort of, and roughly and that sometimes confuse students because of their lack of precision. validity well-grounded or justifiable; being at once relevant and meaningful; logically correct (Merriam Webster Online Dictionary). Indication of how well an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, a test of equation solving ability would consist of equations to be solved as its focus. Verb A word that expresses action or being. verbal maze A wordy teacher explanation that fails to provide information to students in a clear, concise manner. vertical alignment sequencing topics with knowledge and skills at levels K-4 serving as prerequisites for the levels 5-8 content, and these intermediate level concepts and processes providing background information for the content and processes for Levels 9-12 concepts and processes. Volume intensity of voice wait time A term used to describe the time that occurs between a teacher asking a question and the same teacher (a) calling on another student, (b) asking a new question, or (c) answering the question himself or herself. wholeness an anthropological concept that related to the idea that for any given culture their world view is seen as natural and complete. word identification the process of arriving at the pronunciation of a word, given the printed letter representations (also known as decoding) zone of proximal development the distance between the actual developmental level of a learner as determined by independent problem solving ability and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTVWZ

Technical Glossary